Summaries free essay sample

The physical remains of humanly made artifacts form the bulk of the archaeological record. The artifacts that are found by archaeologists may not represent the range of objects actually used because certain materials preserve better than others. For this reason, stone tools and ceramics dominate the archaeological record. Objects made of fabric, cord, skin, and other organic materials no doubt date back to the very earliest archaeological periods but they rarely survive. The introduction of pottery in a culture seems to coincide with the adoption of a sedentary way of life. Ethnography and ethnoarchaeology can shed light on questions concerning technology as many modern cultural groups make tools and pottery that are similar to those used in the past. Experimental archaeology also helps researchers understand how artifacts were made and what they were used for. Many archaeologists have become proficient in activities like stone tool manufacture for just this reason. Despite the indications offered by ethnography and experimental archaeology, only microwear studies can prove how a stone tool was used and what material it was used on. We will write a custom essay sample on Summaries or any similar topic specifically for you Do Not WasteYour Time HIRE WRITER Only 13.90 / page Stone tools are often made by removing material from a core until a desired shape is obtained. The flakes removed from the core can also be used as tools in their own right. Long parallel-sided blades, however, dominate in some parts of the world. Because blades are removed from a core systematically a large number of tools can be produced while very little raw material is wasted. Copper was the most important metal used in early times. The alloying of copper to produce bronze represents a significant step forward in metallurgical practice: the resulting alloy is both stronger and less brittle than copper alone. There are a variety of different methods by which metal and metal artifacts can be produced or manufactured. Casting using the lost-wax method was an important development. The survival of organic materials depends on the matrix that surrounds them and the climate they were deposited in. The acidic soils of tropical climates are the most destructive to organic materials, while dry, desert environments and extremely cold or waterlogged environments are most likely to preserve them. KEY CONCEPT IDENTIFICATIONS Are They Artifacts at All? Eoliths, p. 308 ,Bulb of percussion, p. 308 Extraction: Mines and Quarries Mines, p. 311 Quarries, p. 311 Stone Tool Manufacture Core, p. 315, Retouching, p. 315, Levallois technique, p. 315, Oldowan industry, p. 315, Knapping, p. 317 Refitting, p. 319 Identifying the Function of Stone Tools: Microwear Studies Microwear analysis, p. 319 Other Unaltered Materials Bone, antler, shell, and leather, p. 324 Wood, p. 327 Watercraft, p. 328; 330 Textiles, pp. 330-332 Fiber microwear analysis, p. 332 Synthetic Materials Pyrotechnology, p. 332 Pottery, p. 334 Temper, p. 334 Kilns, pp. 334-335 Faience, p. 335 Glass, p. 336 Archaeometallurgy Non-Ferrous Metals, p. 337 Alloying, pp. 337-338 Metallographic examination, p. 338 Casting, pp. 339-340 Lost-wax technique, pp. 339-340 Slag, p. 342 Platinum, p. 343 Copper Production in Ancient Peru Tuyeres, pp. 340-341 Fine Metalwork Filigree, p. 343 Plating, p. 344 Iron and Steel Iron smelting, p. 344 Steelmaking, p. 345 CHAPTER 9 What Contact Did They Have? Trade And Exchange Summary Trade and exchange systems can be reconstructed if the materials in question are distinctive enough for their source to be identified. When an artifact found in one location is determined to have its origin in another location, contact between the two locations has occurred. Through characterization, artifacts are examined for the characteristic properties of the material from which they are made, thus allowing the source of that material to be determined. For this to work, there must be something about the source of the material that distinguishes it from other sources. The observation of stone objects in thin section, for example, allows the researcher to identify the source of the stone based on its mineral components. The trace elements of an object, which are found in very small quantities, can be used to characterize an object. Neutron activation analysis, for example, can source a piece of obsidian to a particular volcano and, sometimes, even a particular eruption of that volcano. When written records exist they offer a wealth of information about the distribution of goods. Trade goods are often marked by their producer in some way (such as with a clay sealing or even a written name) and from this information a distribution map can be created based on where the goods of a particular producer have been found. Distribution maps aid in the spatial analysis of sites or artifacts. Another way to visualize distribution is through fall-off analysis, where quantities of material found are plotted against the distance of their find spot from the materials source. Greater understanding of trade networks comes from studies of production in areas such as mines and quarries, and the study of consumption of goods. Societies that had contact with each other through trade of material goods also exchanged ideas and other information. This most likely had a direct role in the spread of technology, language, and culture. KEY CONCEPT IDENTIFICATIONS The Study of Interaction Exchange, p. 347 Scale and World System World system, p. 348 Internal exchange, p. 348 External exchange, p. 348 Gift Exchange and Reciprocity Kula, p. 350 Modes of Exchange Reciprocity, p. 351 Redistribution, p. 351 Market exchange, p. 351 Materials of Prestige Value Intrinsic value, p. 352 Valuables and Commodities Primitive valuables, p. 354 Sphere of exchange, p. 354 Discovering the Sources of Traded Goods Characterization, p. 355 Analytical Methods Thin-section analysis, p. 355 Trace-element analysis, pp. 355-356 Isotopic analysis, pp. 360-361 Analyzing Artifact Composition Atomic absorption spectrometry, p. 358 X-ray florescence analysis, p. 358 Neutron activation analysis, p. 359 The Study of Distribution Direct access, p. 362 Obsidian, p. 366 Trend surface analysis, p. 368 Fall-off analysis, p. 369 Distribution, pp. 370-371 The Study of Production Production, p. 372 The Study of Consumption Consumption, p. 373; 374 Exchange and Interaction: The Complete System Interaction spheres, p. 378; 379 Competition, p. 378 Peer-polities, p. 378 CHAPTER 10 What Did They Think? Cognitive Archaeology, Art, And Religion Summary Cognitive archaeology is the study of past ways of thought through material remains. Humans are distinguished from other life forms by their use of symbols; all intelligent speech and thought are based on these symbols. The meaning ascribed to a symbol is specific to a particular cultural tradition and depictions as well as material objects do not directly disclose their meaning to archaeologists. The origins of self-consciousness and the development of a cognitive map are hotly debated but there is little archaeological evidence to clarify the matter. Tool manufacturing and the deliberate burial of the dead are two of many ways we may investigate the cognitive behaviour of early humans. The act of burial itself implies feelings for the dead. Archaeologists recognize that grave-goods in a burial are chosen to give a representation of the identity of the deceased. The existence of writing implies a major extension of the cognitive map as written symbols are the most effective way that humans can describe the world around them and communicate with others. Material symbols are put to a variety of uses. They can establish place by marking territory, organize the natural world into units of time and distance, serve as instruments of planning, regulate relations between people through use of material constructs such as money, bring people closer to the supernatural or transcendent, and even describe the world itself through artistic representation. All of these material symbols can be seen in various ways in the archaeological record. New developments in areas such as the study of early musical behaviour and cognitive science indicate fresh pathways for cognitive archaeology. KEY CONCEPT IDENTIFICATIONS Introduction Cognitive archaeology, p. 381 Theory and Method Cognitive map, p. 382 Investigating how Human Symbolizing Faculties Evolved Language development, p. 383 The food-sharing hypothesis, p. 384 Deliberate burial of human remains, p. 385 Representations, p. 385; 389 Paleolithic Art Parietal art, pp. 386-387 Mobiliary art, pp. 386-387 Working with Symbols The basic use of symbols, pp. 389-390 From Written Source to Cognitive Map Literacy restriction, p. 390 Greek literacy, p. 392 Establishing the Place Domus, p. 393 Landscape archaeology, p. 393 Measuring the World Units of time, p. 396 Units of length, p. 396 Units of weight, pp. 396-397 Symbols of Organization and Power Money, p. 400 Intrinsic value, p. 401 Symbols for the Otherworld: The Archaeology of Religion Archaeology of cult, p. 403 Focusing of attention, p. 404 Identifying the Supernatural Powers Iconography, p. 415 Depiction: Art and Representation Fertility goddess, p. 410 Symmetry analysis, p. 411 Individual artists, pp. 412-413 Mythic thought, p. 412 Aesthetics, p. 416 Music and Cognition Defining music, p. 416 Mind and Material Engagement Embodied cognition, p. 418 Cognition and Neuroscience The learning process, p. 419 CHAPTER 11 Who Were They? What Were They Like? The Bioarchaeology Of People Summary The physical remains of past peoples provide direct evidence about their lives. Bioarchaeology is the study of human remains from archaeological sites. Though whole human bodies can be preserved in a variety of ways, including mummification and freezing, the vast majority of human remains recovered by archaeologists are in the form of skeletons and bone fragments. An important part of the analysis of human remains is the identification of physical attributes. The sex of skeletal remains, for example, can be determined through observing the shape of the pelvis as well as other bones. Teeth can help establish an individuals relative age at death, namely whether they were young, adult or old. It is even possible to reconstruct what an individual looked like through careful analysis of skull features. When intact bodies such as mummies are found, the precise cause of death can sometimes be deduced. For skeletal remains, the cause of death can only rarely be determined as most afflictions leave no trace on bone. Only the effects of violence, accident, congenital deformity, and a handful of diseases can be seen on bones. Evidence for early medicine is found through both written and physical sources. Those cultures that developed writing recorded a number of maladies and their respective cures. Physically, archaeological remains can, at times, show the marks of surgery. Surgical equipment has been recovered from contexts all over the world. Demographic archaeology utilizes archaeological information to make estimates about the size, density, and growth rate of populations. This can be done through analysis of settlement data as well as the richness of a particular environment in terms of its animal and plant resources. Much of the best evidence for early population movements comes from the analysis of modern genetic material. The genetic analysis of living populations can only tell us about past cultures that have living descendants. KEY CONCEPT IDENTIFICATIONS Introduction Bioarchaeology, p. 421 Identifying Physical Attributes Determining sex, p. 423 Determining lifespan, p. 425 Epiphyses, p. 425 Osteons, p. 427 Height, p. 427 Weight, p. 428 Facial reconstruction, pp. 428-429 How Were They Related? Blood groups, p. 431 DNA analysis, p. 431; 433 Assessing Human Abilities Walking, pp. 433-435 Handedness, pp. 435-436 Speech, pp. 436-438 Brain endocasts, p. 436 Sexual behavior, p. 440 Cannibalism, p. 440; pp. 438-439 Disease, Deformity, and Death Forensic archaeology, p. 441 Bacteria and parasites, p. 44 Evidence of violence, p. 445 Harris lines, p. 447 Lead poisoning, p. 448 Early medicine, p. 449 Examining Bodies Computed axial tomography, pp. 442-443 Magnetic Resonance Imaging, pp. 442-443 Assessing Nutrition Malnutrition, p. 453 The rise of agriculture, p. 454 Population Studies Demographic archaeology, p. 454 Paleodemography, p. 454 Diversity and Evolution Mitochondrial Eve, p. 457 Ancient genomics, p. 459 Genetics and Language Histories Macrofamilies, pp. 458-459 CHAPTER 12 Why Did Things Change? Explanation In Archaeology Summary A difficult but important task of archaeology is to answer the question why and indeed much of archaeology has focused on the investigation of why things change. Before the 1960s changes in material and social culture were explained by migration and cultural diffusion. The processual approach of New Archaeology, which began to take hold in the 1960s, attempted to isolate the different processes at work within a society. Rather than placing an emphasis on movements of people as the primary cause of change and development, early processual archaeologists looked more to humanitys relationship with its environment, on subsistence and economy, and the other processes at work within a society to explain why a society was how it was. Processual archaeology often addresses big questions such as the rise of agriculture and the origins of the state. In general, multivariate (several factor) explanations are better than monocausal (single factor) ones. Marxist archaeology, focusing on the effects of class struggle within a society, does not contradict the ideas of processual archaeology, and nor does evolutionary archaeology, which is centered on the idea that the processes responsible for biological evolution also drive culture change. As a reaction to the functionalist approach of early processual archaeology, so-called postprocessual approaches developed in the 1980s and 1990s, emphasizing the subjectivity of archaeological interpretations and drawing on structuralist thinking and neo-Marxist analysis. New cognitive-processual approaches in the 1990s sought to overcome some of the limitations of early processual archaeology. A greater emphasis is placed on the concepts and beliefs of past societies, and the difficulty of testing hypotheses concerning culture change is recognized. One aim of contemporary archaeology is to keep track of the individual in explaining change. Agency, defined as the short-term intentionality of an individual, may indeed have long-term and unforeseen consequences that lead to cultural change. Another aim is to recognize the active role of material culture in the way humans engage with the world. KEY CONCEPT IDENTIFICATIONS Migrationist and Diffusionist Explanations Diffusion, p. 464 The Processual Approach Processual (New) archaeology, p. 467 Applications Functional-processual approach, p. 471 Cognitive-processual approach, p. 471 Marxist Archaeology: Key Features Marxist archaeology, p. 471 Evolutionary Archaeology Human behavioral ecology, p. 473 Richard Dawkins, p. 473 The Form of Explanation: General or Particular Idealism, p. 475 Natural laws, p. 476 Deductive-nomothetic explanation, p. 476 Historiographic, p. 476 Scientistic, p. 476 Hypothetico-deductive explanation, p. 476 The Individual Identity, p. 476 Monocausal Explanations: Monocausal explanation, p. 477 Hydraulic hypothesis, p. 477 Environmental circumscription, p. 478 Multivariate Explanations Multivariate explanation, p. 480 Systems approach, p. 480 Negative feedback, p. 480 Homeostasis, p. 480 Simulation Simulation, p. 481 Model, p. 481 Postprocessual or Interpretive Explanation Structuralist approaches, p. 485 Critical Theory, p. 485 Relativism, p. 485 Neo-Marxism, p. 488 Cognitive Archaeology Cognitive-processual archaeology, p. 488 Agency and Material Engagement Agency, p. 490 CHAPTER 13 Archaeology In Action: Five Case Studies Summary Archaeology: Theories, Methods, and Practice is primarily about how we know what we know, and how we find out — in philosophical terms, about the epistemology of archaeology. To complete the picture, it is important to see something of archaeology in action: to consider a few real field projects where the questions and methods have come together and produced, with the aid of the relevant specialisms, some genuine advance in our knowledge. The questions we ask are themselves dependent on what, and how much, we already know. Sometimes the archae ­ologist starts work in archaeologically virgin territory – where little or no previous research has been undertaken – as for instance when the Southeast Asian specialist Charles Higham began his fieldwork in Thailand (see our fourth case study, KhokPhanom Di: the Origins of Rice Farming in Southeast Asia). In the Valley of Oaxaca in Mexico, on the other hand – our first case study – when Kent Flannery and his colleagues began work more than four decades ago, little was understood of the evolution in Mesoamerica of what we would call complex society, although the great achievements of the Olmec and the Maya were already well known. The work of the Flannery team has involved continual formulation of new models. It represents an excellent example of the truism that new facts (data) lead to new questions (and new theories), and these in turn to the discovery of new facts. The second study, devoted to Floridas Calusa Project, investigates the apparent paradox of a sedentary, complex, and powerful society that was almost entirely based on hunting, fishing, and gathering. Until the 1980s, nearly everything known about the Calusa came from Spanish ethnohistorical accounts, but archaeology is transforming and expanding our knowledge of many aspects of this prehistoric culture. Our third case study follows the research project of Val Attenbrow and her associates in Upper Mangrove Creek, southeastern Australia. Here archaeologists have attempted to study the traces left by small groups of highly mobile hunter-gatherers, and to establish their technological responses to environmental changes over time. The transformation in our knowledge of prehistoric Australia and Southeast Asia over the course of the last 50 years has been one of the most exciting developments to have taken place in modern archaeology. The Upper Mangrove Creek and KhokPhanom Di projects, with their close integration of both environmental and archaeological studies, have played an important part in that transformation. Our fifth case study focuses on the work of the York Archaeological Trust in the northern English city of York. This is a project of a very different kind: working under all the constraints of archaeology in a modern urban setting, the York unit has set out to present its findings to the public in a novel and effective way, and JORVIK, their visitor center, has for the past 25 years led the way in this aspect of public archaeology. CHAPTER 14 Whose Past? Archaeology And The Public The past has different meanings for different people, and often personal identity is defined by the past. Increasingly archaeology is playing a role in the definition of national identity where the past is used to legitimize the present by reinforcing a sense of national greatness. Ethnicity, which is just as strong a force today as in earlier times, relies upon the past for legitimization as well, sometimes with destructive consequences. Ethics is the science of what is right and wrong, or morality, and most branches of archaeology are seen to have an ethical dimension. Until recent decades archaeologists gave little thought to such questions as who owns the past? Now every archaeological decision should take ethical concerns into account. We cannot simply dismiss the alternative theories of fringe archaeology as farcical, because they have been so widely believed. Anyone who has read this book, and who understands how archaeology proceeds, will already see why such writings are a delusion. The real antidote is a kind of healthy skepticism: to ask where is the evidence? Knowledge advances by asking questions that is the central theme of this book, and there is no better way to disperse the lunatic fringe than by asking difficult questions, and looking skeptically at the answers. The archaeology of every land has its own contribution to make to the understanding of human diversity and hence of the human condition. Although earlier scholars behaved with flagrant disregard for the feelings and beliefs of native peoples, interest in these matters today is not an attempt further to appropriate the native past. Perhaps the saddest type of archaeological destruction comes from the looting of sites. Through this act, all information is destroyed in the search for highly salable artifacts. Museums and collectors bear some of the responsibility for this. Museums are also under increasing pressure to return antiquities to their lands of origin. Police now consider the theft and smuggling of art and antiquities to be second in scale only to the drug trade in the world of international crime. KEY CONCEPT IDENTIFICATIONS Archaeology and Identity Identity, p. 536 Archaeological Ethics Ethics, p. 538 Popular Archaeology versus Pseudoarchaeology Pseudoarchaeology, p. 538, Other archaeologies, p. 538, Piltdown Man, pp. 538-539, Atlantis, p. 539 Archaeological fraud, p. 540 Who Owns the Past? The Elgin Marbles, p. 541, Repatriation, p. 543, NAGPRA, p. 543, Kennewick Man, p. 543 The Responsibility of Collectors and Museums Illegal antiquities, p. 544, Looters, p. 544 CHAPTER 15 The Future Of The Past: How To Manage The Heritage? Summary Many nations believe that it is the duty of the government to have policies with regard to conservation, and these conservation laws often apply to archaeology. Construction, agricultural intensification, conflict, tourism, and looting are all human activities that damage or destroy sites. Built on a strong legal foundation, Cultural Resource Management (CRM) or applied archaeology plays a major role in American archaeology. When a project is on federal land, uses federal money, or needs a federal permit, the law requires that cultural resources are identified, evaluated, and if they cannot be avoided, addressed accordingly in an approved mitigation plan. A large number of private contract archaeology firms employ the majority of archaeologists in the US. These firms are responsible for meeting mitigation requirements, overseen by a lead agency and an SHPO. Publication of final reports is required, but the variable quality and usually limited dissemination of these reports remain a problem. Archaeologists have a duty to report what they find. Since excavation is, to a certain extent, destructive, published material is often the only record of what was found at a site. Perhaps up to 60 percent of modern excavations remain unpublished after 10 years. The Internet and the popular media can help to fulfill one of the fundamental purposes of archaeology: to provide the public with a better understanding of the past. Besides nationalistic or religious views in the interpretation and presentation of the past, we have to be aware of gender-bias in the often still male-dominated world of archaeology. Museums are increasingly seen as theaters of memory in which local and national identities are defined. Another source of bias is the ubiquity of the use of the English language in archaeological discourse, and the dominance of one ethnic group or class over another in different parts of the world. Prehistoric archaeology, with its emphasis on material, non-verbal culture, is well placed to overcome these difficulties. KEY CONCEPT IDENTIFICATIONS The Response: Survey, Conservation, and Mitigation Survey, p. 552, Environmental assessment, p. 552, American Antiquities Act, p. 552, CRM, p. 553 Conservation, pp. 552-553, Mitigation, pp. 552-553, SHPO, p. 556, Portable Antiquities Scheme, p. 558 UNESCO, p. 559, The World Heritage List, p. 559, The 1954 Hague Convention, p. 559 Heritage Management, Display, and Tourism Heritage, p. 562 English Heritage, p. 562 Who Interprets and Presents the Past? Public presentation, p. 563 Museum studies, p. 564 The Past for All People and All Peoples Scientific colonialism, p. 565 CHAPTER 16 The New Searchers: Building A Career In Archaeology Many readers of the preceding editions of Archaeology: Theories, Methods, and Practice have wondered how one can set about developing a career in archaeology – which may be in the field of archaeological research (whether in a university or as an independent researcher), or it may be in a more administrative capacity as a government employee, or in the business of heritage tourism. So we have invited five professionals, all earning their living by doing archaeology, to tell their own story. Each is actively engaged in research, in the creation of new knowledge: in that sense they are the new searchers, the counterparts and successors of the pioneer searchers discussed in Chapter 1. They are not a random sample; different invitations might have produced different responses. But they are all part of that now vast international enterprise involved in investigating, reconstructing, and disseminating knowledge of the human past. They are all established archaeologists but at different stages in their careers. Their backgrounds are also different. Yet most of them have something in common: they came to archaeology fortuitously, by chance, as it were. This is hardly surprising, since the practice of archaeology is not a major profession like medicine or the law or retail selling. But each of them, by some means, caught the bug. That bug, the back-looking curiosity as Glyn Daniel once called it, that fascination with the human past is what drives them: each expresses it in their own way. The joy they express (The most rewarding thing I have ever discovered) is not simply discovering and uncovering objects that have lain hidden for thousands of years. It is the pleasure of making sense of the data, making sense of the past. The archaeologist of today, as of yesterday, is a person of wide horizons, with knowledge of the human past, and with a concern for the human future.

The eNotes Blog How I Learned to (Finally) Appreciate Romeo andJuliet

How I Learned to (Finally) Appreciate Romeo andJuliet The first time I read Romeo and Juliet, I was a freshman in high school. And, like many other high school freshmen, I hated every minute of it. When I was first introduced to Shakespeare’s classic tragedy, I was already exhausted by the oversaturation of Romeo and Juliet in pop culture- everything from Leo DiCaprio’s 90s portrayal of a gangster Romeo to the 2013 film Warm Bodies seemed fixated on reinventing a story that had gotten old. It felt like every love story was measured against Romeo and Juliet, and as a freshman, it made me gag. It wasn’t until I read the play again in college that I realized how closed-minded I had been. I studied Shakespeare again in my freshman year of college, and my professor introduced Romeo and Juliet by teaching us about Shakespeare’s sonnets. Before he had us read the play, he showed the class act 1, scene 5, the scene where Romeo and Juliet meet, and he pointed out the sonnet embedded in the text: Romeo: If I profane with my unworthiest hand This holy shrine, the gentle sin is this: My two lips, two blushing pilgrims, ready stand To smooth that rough touch with a tender kiss. Juliet: Good pilgrim, you do wrong your hand too much, Which mannerly devotion shows in this; For saints have hands that pilgrims’ hands do touch And palm to palm is holy palmers’ kiss. Romeo: Have not saints lips, and holy palmers too? Juliet: Ay, pilgrim, lips that they must use in prayer. Romeo: O, then, dear saint, let lips do what hands do! They pray; grant thou, lest faith turn to despair. Juliet: Saints do not move, though grant for prayers’ sake. Romeo: Then move not while my prayer’s effect I take. Thus from my lips, by thine my sin is purged. [Kisses her.] I was blown away, to say the least. In the middle of the scene were Shakespeare’s signature fourteen lines of iambic pentameter (the last line not counting as part of the sonnet). It had an ABAB rhyme scheme and ended with a heroic couplet and the lovers’ first kiss. As it turns out, there are three sonnets total in the play: one in the opening prologue, one at the beginning of act 2 (both recited by the chorus), and one in act 1, scene 5, where Romeo and Juliet first meet. Learning the context and history of Shakespeares sonnets added a new dimension to the play and made it more interesting than it had been before. Sonnets are much older than Shakespeare and go back to Italian love poems from the thirteenth century. They are traditionally declarations of unrequited love, so to see the two characters meet each other in a sonnet is like seeing them engage in a dance. But sonnets are supposed to be about unrequited feelings- the lovers aren’t supposed to get together in the end. The speaker is never supposed to get his love; the love object is never supposed to speak in the first place. It all goes against tradition. This particular sonnet in act 1, scene 5, breaks all the rules by allowing both Romeo and Juliet to participate and even kiss, an act that ultimately leads to their tragic fate. The sonnets really made the tragedy of the story sink in- I finally saw how deep the story went. The love and the tragedy were embedded in the poetry of the play, so it no longer mattered how different interpretations dressed it up or down. The romance was no longer repulsive because it was connected to a history of tragic love stories that I had been completely unaware of. Romeo and Juliet has been told and retold and reimagined so many times that it’s understandable to feel like you know the story before you’ve even read the play. It’s easy to roll your eyes at iterations of â€Å"wherefore art thou, Romeo† and â€Å"what light through yonder window breaks† and miss the poetry printed on the page. So if romance isn’t your thing, that’s fine- this play, full of keen language and a rich lineage of heartbreak, has so much more to offer.

The Aerodynamics of Future Electric Cars Research Paper

The Aerodynamics of Future Electric Cars - Research Paper Example The researcher states that changes in global demand patterns, market forces, environmental concerns and the ever present danger of fleeting fossil fuel reserves are forcing automobile manufacturers and research scientists to look for alternative means to fuel automobiles. One facet of these developments has been electric vehicles that are powered exclusively through electric batteries. The emergence of electric vehicles has put in motion a number of new design challenges such as the aerodynamics of such vehicles because aerodynamics represent a large loss during normal functioning of all kinds of automobiles. Drag created by a moving vehicle represents one of the largest losses of energy created by an automobile’s engine. Conventional automobiles may lose as much as 40% of the total power to air drag. As with other conventional bodies, the aerodynamic drag exerted by air on a vehicle is directly proportional to the square of the velocity of the vehicle. For typically aerodynam ic automobiles the coefficient of drag and the accompanying area need to be as small as possible in terms of design considerations in order to minimize the drag encountered. There has been an ongoing struggle to create vehicles with as low a coefficient of drag as possible. Typically well designed vehicles display coefficients of drag of the order of 0.13 while a coefficient of drag of 0.1 is achievable through special design considerations.... Moreover considerations of an acoustical nature are also reduced through the use of electric engines that produce far less noise than conventional engines. However this has been criticized for increasing danger to blind people because the incoming vehicle would not possess a sound. (The Week, 2010) Based on these considerations it can be seen that the design of electric vehicles is an altogether different domain from conventional automobile design. The inclusion of new components such as the electric engines places new constrains on design that require solutions through out of the box thinking. This paper will attempt to describe the various major challenges being posed in terms of design and their current solutions along with their future outlook. 2. Conventional Automobile Packaging and Acoustics Conventional automobiles have been built and packaged in nearly the same way for decades. The early pioneering research into automobiles has created a stable platform that is dogmatically used as per vehicle class and usage. For example most passenger cars created along conventional design philosophy house the engine in the front and use a front wheel drive system while load carriers such as trucks use front mounted engines with rear wheel drive. Moreover recent advances in computational fields have allowed designers to create more light weight and singular construction frames better known as monocques. While some of these design elements such as a light weight bodies, four wheels and singular construction have been applied to building electrical vehicles but other packaging constraints have changed altogether. The design configuration and considerations for conventional automobiles are being

Case study analysis Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words

Analysis - Case Study Example Leadership defines the company and its purported growth pattern, as leaders possess the power to make the needed strategic as well as operational decisions. The ascent to power of new leader in an organization either may define the growth or continual slack of the company. At Ernst Benary, the current leadership has failed to take grasp of the needed changes that will conform to the changing needs of the consumers. Though history defines the growth pattern of any organization and is an important factor in leadership and positioning, there needs to be a disintegration or shift from known ways of operations to cater for the developing market. Klaudia Benary on entering the marketing department realized the stagnation and the struggling position of the company. Family ties could be purported as determinants in decision making within the company, taking to consideration the positions that Katrin Benary Thimm occupied, yet she did not have enough experience and education to play part in m anagement board. This can be defined as the beginning of the stagnation state. Failure by management to take effective and bold steps, implies that the company also lacks a directional strategy. The Benary company began its failing by lacking of strategizing leaders. The current management system at Benary is taking steps towards ensuring the initial growth associated with the company exists. Current 10 year strategy plan in the increasingly concentrated industry means that this is an important growth strategy. As the assistant managing director puts it (beyer et la p2), there is need to demonstrate capability to fulfill the growth strategy plan. Goal setting is an important strategy for growth, but has to go hand in hand with strategy implementation process that will define the steps towards ultimate achievement of organizations goal. Streamlining of the company’s resources with the strategy implementation is another managerial tool whose adoption defines the growth pattern. Any organization’s mission, vision, objectives, and steps taken towards achievement of these goals is also an important management tool for the growth strategy of the company. Ernst needs to have well defined company’s vision, mission and objectives that will help in achievement of its goals. The company was adversely affected by the World War 1, where business relations were abruptly cut following the war. This emerges as a threat to the company and so does the emergence of new international competitors from USA, Japan and Netherlands. The company was able to favorably build on its strengths that involved the breeding knowledge which helped introduced a new seed variety in the 1920’s. Management is also defined by the ability to capitalize on it strengths as it tries to outdo the threats. More threats emerged after the country experienced a struggling economy and later the coming to power of the German Nazis also became a threat. The company was headed by a fa mily of Jewish origin. This stipulated challenges and threats to the organization which it was able to conquer. The managements capability to identify threats and weaknesses and devise strategies to overcome the weaknesses will define the growth of a particular company. Motivation of employees, an important factor in any production and company dependent on employee output, also is affected by decisions of top managers. Incorporation of employees in decision making and decentralization of power is a

Cuba and Argentina are in Latin America Essay Example for Free

Cuba and Argentina are in Latin America Essay Although both Cuba and Argentina are in Latin America, they still have differences in cultures and even in educational systems. Moreover, despite the fact that these two countries are close in terms of literacy rates (although Argentina is slightly higher than that of Cuba), the two countries have much differences in educational practices. In Cuba, the government subsidize education at all levels. This makes the education in this country extensively state-directed. A lot of public dispute and politics covers the education, being state-directed. The bulk of the tax burden of the people are mainly allocated for education. Education has been the top priority of the country when it comes to funding expenditures and extra projects. Cuba is praised for showing an extravagant and long-lasting effort to ensure the quality of education services that their youth receive. There is a free compulsory primary education for all Cuban children age 6 to 15. The government subsidizes even the higher education. However, this scenario also implies negative impacts. Since the government â€Å"trains† its youth, they also rate them according to their political beliefs. Students have their own â€Å"Cumulative School File. This is like a report card that goes beyond documenting academic standing. It is the record of the student’s political thinking. Anyone who has join protests against the government is hindered to have more opportunities of the higher education or universities. This is also applicable even for the employed people. Some of the students are expelled from school and others are dismissed from work for the employed ones. The control of the government over the people last in more or less a lifetime because this â€Å"report card† are updated. All of the students are expected to have the Marxist way of thinking towards the government and politics. On the other hand, Argentina government is less rigid when it comes to education. They also have the compulsory primary education for children ages 6 to 14 years of age. All children of these ages are mandated to attend the primary education that lasts 12 years. There is no longer compulsory education for the high school level although they could still have affordable high school education offerings. However, half of those who attended the compulsory primary education do not continue to high school. Yet, Argentina is still among the countries who have the most number of degree holders in relation to their population. These two Latin American countries are the same and yet different in a number of aspects in education. Indeed, both countries give importance to education. The government allot an adequate amount of resources to education. This is true since they even have legislated a law that could legalize a mandated primary education for Argentina and in all levels in the case of Cuba. Both are strict when it comes to age requirement for the grade levels. However, their approaches towards the implementation of quality education are different. In Argentina, students who have finished the primary education are allowed to choose in what school they will pursue. Moreover, they have the decision whether they would continue or stop schooling. The students and their family can choose among the various schools that are affordable. On the other hand, Cuba goes beyond the primary education. The government subsidizes education up to the highest level. However, the bearing is that it can decide for the future of the student. The student and his family should agree with the government in all aspects so that he or she could enroll in the best universities. The government does not only have the political power but also the power to have the youth favor to them. Now, if the students from these two countries migrate to the United States of America, they may have the same cultural adjustment problems. Both speaks the same language, and thus both may have the same learning and communication styles. The both may also have the same expected problems when they are brought to the US classrooms. Basically, the problems that may arise from the immigration of the students may be classified into three: intercultural communication, learning styles, and adolescence (Introduction to Immigration in US, 2001). In the United of States of America, government provides education for the people. It could either be on the federal, state, or local level. Because there is allotted budget for education, it is compulsory to avail these education benefits. Children from four to 18 years old are required to undergo the basic education. Moreover, formal education in the US is being held in public, private and home schools. The schooling is divided into kindergarten up to twelfth grade. There are many universities among the numerous states. The students from Cuba and Argentina are expected to have problems intercultural communication. This means not only their difference in language but also the differences in diverse cultures. This may be called a crash of culture or others termed this as â€Å"culture shock. † For example, in the US, the common form of greeting is handshake. On the other hand, in Cuba and Argentina, it is common to give hugs even among the boys, but in the United Sates, this form of greeting is given for those who are already closely related to each other. Another intercultural communication conflict may also be attributed to the differences in religion. The people of Argentina and Cuba relatively have different religion to the majority of the people in the United States. The Cubans and Argentineans are mostly Roman Catholic while the Americans are mostly Protestants. There may be some differences or even conflicts in religious practices and even celebrations. The second type of problem that may arise among the immigrating students is the differences in learning styles. The communication styles also differ from the two countries. People in the United States are a lot more direct in the matter of speaking than the two other countries. Moreover, noises in the American classroom setting are common. This may be distracting to the Cuban and Argentinean students who are used to formal and quiet classroom setting. The third issue is the adolescence of the students. Adolescents struggle with identity issues. This process may be more difficult and complicated for the students who have migrated. They may try to cope with these differences and tend to cover or set aside their own culture. This may cause emotional and social chaos to the student. Statement Prompt The main difference between the education in the United Sates and the education in Argentina is that the former has longer basic education. In Argentina, the compulsory basic education lasts until the student is 14 years old while the basic education is compulsory until the students in the United States are 18 years of age. The basic education in US involves more grade level and classification. More often than not, after the long basic education, the students are qualified to work. Many of the students in US work while studying in college. The long basic education aims to make the students independent and included in the working force of the state. Nevertheless, these problems may be adequately addressed. There are recommendations to smoothen the learning and coping process of the students. First, the teacher has to be aware of the differences of culture among the diverse types of students in the class. The teacher should have the initiative to lessen the crash of culture among the students. He or she should have adequate knowledge about the nature of the immigrant students. This is not to encourage them to change but to let them preserve their culture in their very rights (Introduction to Immigration in US, 2001). Moreover, the teacher should also help the student to have faster English-learning process. He or she should encourage the students to speak English in and even out of the class. Although he is not the student’s English teacher, he should still be patient to talk the student. Lastly, the family of the immigrant students should also be acquainted to the educational system in the United States. â€Å"New comer† programs are effective to encourage the students and even their families to participate more in the school programs. This will make them trust that the school can help the child regardless of the differences in culture. There should be trainings about language skills, work skills and even cultural adaptations program especially for the students. Reasons for immigration may be different but the adaptation that needs to be done may be the same. The differences in culture may be settled in effective communication. Although there are also differences in manners of communication itself, compromising is universal to resolve conflict: crash of culture for this matter. The educational systems may also be different but the goal of education is universal too, learning, knowledge and may be wisdom are the goals of the people who avail education. Reference: Introduction to Immigration in the United States. 2001. Northwest Regional Educational Laboratory. Available at: http://www. nwrel. org/cnorse/booklets/immigration/5. html#overall

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â€Å"He must not take many wive,s or his heart will be led astray. He must not accumulate large amounts of silver and gold.† ( Duet. 17:17 KJV) In today’s world many people have had different views and ideas on what polygamy really is, is it morally wrong? In this paper you are going to learn what polygamy is, who practices it, the affects that it has on children, wives and the husbands, risk factors, and most importantly why it is morally wrong. The world polygamy means the practice of having more than one wife. It comes from poly meaning ‘many’ and gamos meaning ‘marriage. Polygamy has been around for many years, and by many years, it’s been around since the biblical ages. In the Old Testament of the bible polygamy was allowed, not only was it practiced or allowed in the Old Testament but other cultures and religions practiced polygamy as well. These religions included Hindus, Muslims, and Christians. The Old Testament gives multiple examples of men being married to more than one wife at a time. The patriarchs Abraham and Jacob are known to be examples of righteous men who had several wives in the Old Testament. It is said that in ancient times when a man had more than one wife or wives and concubines(a woman who lives with a man but has lower status than his wife or wives) these wives and concubines were segregated by position and authority within the husband’s family. The first wife held the highest position and it was to her first –born son that the husband’s inheritance was given. (www.bibleresearch.org) Although there and many reasons as to why people practiced polygamy, some of these reasons were family reasons, personal reasons, and religious reasons. Practicing polygamy you would share family responsibilities, more freed... ...KJV) â€Å"And if a man take a wife and her mother, it is wickedness: they shall be burnt with fire , both he and they; that there be no wickedness among you ( Lev. 20:14 KJV) The first quote is stating that a man cannot be married concurrently to two women who are sisters, while the second quote prohibits a man taking a woman and her mother as wives, or they will be executed by fire. The quotes both go to show you in a religious way that polygamy was wrong, and still is. In Genesis 2:24 it says â€Å"Therefore shall a man leave his father and his mother ,and shall cleave to his wife: and they shall be one flesh† . Note in that particular verse it says â€Å"wife† not â€Å"wives†, and that’s how it should be. There fore it is morally wrong to practice polygamy, and if one feels that it is not, maybe they should rethink their values, and what they consider morals to really be.

My career as a Computer Technician Essay

In today’s time, some of the best career choices can be found within technology. A significant part of technology, computers, is an ever changing field, constantly growing and expanding to make newer, faster, better computers. One of the best fields within this division is Computer Technician. There are many reasons why this position is a position that is strived for, and a high demand job position within the workforce. I will explain the three top reasons why anyone would want to be a Computer Technician, and why it’s the best job choice for you. As you begin to look into the career choice of becoming a Computer Technician, you find out that it is a field in which you repair computers, whether it be hardware or software related. Also, you find out there are requirements needed to become one. First, you have to undergo education. â€Å"You can begin preparing to become a computer technician while still in high school. Many high schools offer certification training courses or credit towards a 2-year college degree or an associate’s degree. High school graduates can choose to pursue either a 2 or 4 year college program. Many community colleges offer computer technician training programs that focus directly on the actual jobs you will be doing out in the real world. The most important training courses you will need to take are those courses that prepare you for your certification exams! These courses can be taken as part of a degree program or on a stand-alone basis.† (n.d.3.) Coming from education, if you receive the right amount of it, the rewards can be great. â€Å"According to the BLS, the median wage of computer repair technicians is $36,000 as of 2011. The highest wages are found in technical and trade schools, at a mean wage of $67,000. Earnings are highest in states on the East Coast, specifically in the northeastern states where the mean wage can reach $41,000-$47,000.† (n.d.2.) This is a very rewarding job, considering the education requirements and the actual pay wage, this is a great start into the field and a great way to get paid! The salary, benefits, and 401k plan that are usually offered are available in this career, as well, depending on which company or place of business you work for. Coming from benefits and rewards of becoming a Computer Technician, it is also a very flexible field. Hours can be full or part time, pay can be salary or hourly. Considering there is an increase within the job market for Computer Technicians, the flexibility of having more choice in hours and pay is a significant pro to this career choice, as other jobs in other industries do not always allow such flexibility. This career choice is truly an easy one to adapt to. The requirements of becoming a Computer Technician might be a bit steep, and somewhat tedious to sit through and complete, but the benefits of becoming one are too high to ignore. The ability to stay on the cutting edge of technology, alone, is worth it, but the financial aspect of this career choice is also not one to dismiss as not worth it. Computer Technicians overall are a very admirable field to choose as a career choice, because it truly is a field in which doesn’t require years upon years of education, and the benefits are well worth reaping. REFERENCES QuinStreet Inc. (n.d.1). Retrieved from http://www.computertrainingschools.com/career-training/computer-repair-technician/ (n.d.2). Retrieved from http://diplomaguide.com/articles/Computer_Repair_Tech_Career_Overview.html (n.d.3). Retrieved from http://www.citytowninfo.com/education-articles/career-guides/how-to-become-a-computer-technician